Molecular prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in water and wastewater of the world: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

The association between parasitic diseases and the consumption of contaminated water has been widely reported. Due to oocyst contamination, water is a medium for human and veterinary toxoplasmosis transmission. Therefore, this systematic review and meta-analysis aim to investigate the prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) in water and raw and treated wastewater samples from around the world utilizing molecular methods. A comprehensive search of three electronic databases (PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science) and the internet search engine Google Scholar was conducted for studies published until September 2024. The screening process identified 51 relevant studies, from which 45 were included in the final analysis. The pooled prevalence of T. gondii in water and raw and treated wastewater samples worldwide was estimated at 11.1 % (95 % CI: 8.5 to 14.3 %) and 6.8 % (95 % CI: 3 to 14.6 %) using molecular methods. The findings underscore a significant public health concern, given the potential for waterborne transmission of toxoplasmosis. The results of this study emphasize the necessity for enhanced surveillance and monitoring of water quality, as well as the implementation of effective sanitation measures to reduce the risks associated with contaminated water.