Splenic TNF-α signaling potentiates the innate-to-adaptive transition of antiviral NK cells.

Natural killer (NK) cells possess both innate and adaptive features. Here, we investigated NK cell activation across tissues during cytomegalovirus infection, which generates antigen-specific clonal expansion and long-lived memory responses. Longitudinal tracking and single-cell RNA sequencing of NK cells following infection revealed enhanced activation in the spleen, as well as early formation of a CD69lo precursor population that preferentially gave rise to adaptive NK cells. Splenic NK cells demonstrated heightened tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) signaling and increased expression of the receptor TNFR2, which coincided with elevated TNF-α production by splenic myeloid cells. TNFR2-deficient NK cells exhibited impaired interferon gamma (IFN-γ) production and expansion. TNFR2 signaling engaged two distinct nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) signaling arms-innate effector NK cell responses required canonical NF-κB signaling, whereas non-canonical NF-κB signaling enforced differentiation of CD69lo adaptive NK cell precursors. Thus, NK cell priming in the spleen during viral infection promotes an innate-to-adaptive transition, providing insight into avenues for generating adaptive NK cell immunity across diverse settings.