Air pollution interventions for health.

Air pollution, a leading environmental health risk, claims millions of lives yearly, impacting health across the lifespan. Despite widespread acknowledgement of air pollution-related disease burdens, eliminating air pollution remains challenging. Many regions are reliant on fossil fuels or biomass for basic survival, and developed economies striving to reduce air pollution face persistent barriers. Climate change complicates intervention efforts, as rising temperatures and extreme weather (for example, wildfires, dust storms) intensify air pollution. Traditional interventions may falter under worsening climate conditions, requiring integrated mitigation, adaptation and resilient infrastructure to yield environmental and health benefits. In this narrative Review, we evaluate multilevel interventions at the national, community and individual levels, discussing what works and does not work, with illustrative case examples. No single intervention suffices; efficacy depends on context, shaped by enforcement and equity. Integrated strategies are needed to address the root causes of air pollution and mitigate the devastating health impacts.