Interventional therapy for hepatocellular carcinoma in the immunotherapy era: From mechanism exploration to materials innovation.

Hepatocellular carcinoma(HCC) ranks among the leading causes of cancer-related mortality worldwide. In the treatment landscape of HCC, transarterial therapies plfan'yiay a crucial role. This review focuses on transarterial embolization for HCC, with particular emphasis on transarterial chemoembolization(TACE) and transarterial radioembolization(TARE), exploring their significant effects on the tumor microenvironment. TACE involves the liberation of tumor-derived antigens and damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), while exerting direct modulatory influences on immune populations including tumor-infiltrating macrophages, cytotoxic T cells, and natural killer lymphocytes. This process, in turn, activates the local immune response while simultaneously inducing changes in the tumor's vascular environment. These changes have unveiled novel opportunities for immunotherapy and targeted therapy. Additionally, nanomaterials have emerged as a significant component in both HCC treatment and TACE therapy. Their unique properties facilitate improved drug delivery, precise modulation of the immune microenvironment, and ultimately, better treatment outcomes. They can targetedly ameliorate the hypoxic and acidic immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Furthermore, by activating immunogenic cell death and regulating immune cell infiltration, these materials can reverse immunosuppression. Looking ahead, elucidating the intricate mechanisms by which TACE modulates the immuno-tumor microenvironment and developing innovative therapeutics that specifically target the tumor microenvironment will remain key focal points in future HCC research.