Social consequences of emotional expressions in negotiation.

Negotiation is integral to social life. Whether we focus on exchanges between individuals, groups, organizations, or nations, negotiation is the most common and constructive way of making deals and solving disputes. Negotiations can spark intense emotions, which in turn shape negotiation processes and outcomes. Here, we review research on the social consequences of emotional expressions in negotiation. We summarize evidence regarding specific single emotions (e.g., anger, happiness, disappointment, sadness, fear, guilt, shame, pride, hope) as well as alternative (patterns of) emotional responses (e.g., empathy, emotional ambivalence, mixed emotions, alternating emotions, indifference) across levels of analysis (interpersonal, intragroup, intergroup). Our review indicates that emotions can have both favorable and unfavorable consequences, depending on critical moderators (e.g., information processing, perceived appropriateness) and the focal criterion (e.g., monetary gains, social outcomes). The richness of the empirical record underlines the importance of investigating discrete emotions (rather than positive vs. negative affect) and defies simple conclusions about the (dys)functionality of emotions. Emotional expressions can help or hurt negotiators' outcomes depending on goal prioritization (e.g., maximizing individual outcomes vs. maintaining positive relations) and the social context. We call for research outside the lab to gain insight into real-world consequences of emotional dynamics in (intergroup) negotiation, mediation, and diplomacy.