Freeze-Thaw Durability and Anisotropic Damage Evolution of 3D-Printed River-Sediment Engineered Cementitious Composites: Effects of Interlayer Interface Defects.

Freeze-thaw durability of 3D-printed engineered cementitious composites (3DP-ECC) is strongly affected by print-induced interlayer defects and anisotropy, particularly in cold regions. This study investigated Cast-ECC and Z-direction 3DP-ECC incorporating Yellow River sediment (YRS) as an equal-mass replacement for quartz sand at 0-100%. Compressive, three-point bending, and four-point bending tests, relative dynamic elastic modulus (RDME), XCT, MIP, SEM-EDS, and Weibull damage modeling were used to evaluate degradation up to 150 freshwater freeze-thaw cycles. Moderate YRS replacement (25-50%) improved particle packing, reduced visible defects, and refined the pore structure, thereby enhancing frost resistance. The R50 mixture showed the best residual performance: after 150 cycles, compressive strength decreased from 55 to 46 MPa in Cast-ECC and from 54 to 44 MPa in 3DP-ECC, corresponding to retention rates of 83.6% and 81.5%, respectively. The residual peak load in four-point bending of 3DP-ECC-R50 was 15.4% lower than that of Cast-ECC-R50, confirming the detrimental role of interlayer defects under loading perpendicular to the layers. RDME-based Weibull fitting described the overall damage evolution (R2 = 0.876-0.994), while XCT, MIP, and SEM-EDS indicated that interlayer discontinuities, pore-structure evolution, and local microstructural degradation governed anisotropic deterioration. The results support durability-oriented design of YRS-based 3DP-ECC in cold regions.