Pathogenic mechanisms and targeted therapies for anemia in myelodysplastic syndromes.

Myelodysplastic Syndromes (MDS) are malignant neoplasms of the myeloid lineage originating from hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), characterized by ineffective hematopoiesis, blood cell dysplasia, and a high risk of transformation to acute leukemia. Anemia affects up to 90 % of MDS patients, significantly increasing symptom burden, impacting quality of life, accelerating disease progression, and is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. The limited therapeutic landscape for addressing anemia in MDS presents a significant challenge in clinical management. This review explores the mechanisms of anemia in MDS（including low-risk MDS and high-risk MDS）, covering disturbances in hematopoiesis, telomere dynamics, inflammation, immune dysregulation, alterations in iron metabolism, and the role of the bone marrow microenvironment. We examine how these factors contribute to the complex pathophysiology of MDS-related anemia and discuss their implications for treatment strategies. Furthermore, we highlight recent advances in understanding the molecular basis of MDS, which have paved the way for novel therapeutic approaches. These include targeted therapies addressing specific genetic mutations, immunomodulatory agents, and innovative approaches to stimulate effective erythropoiesis. We also review emerging treatments such as Luspatercept, along with other novel agents targeting specific pathways, and ongoing clinical trials exploring combination therapies and personalized treatment strategies.