Corneal fibrosis: From in vitro models to current and upcoming drug and gene medicines.

Fibrotic diseases are characterised by myofibroblast differentiation, uncontrolled pathological extracellular matrix accumulation, tissue contraction, scar formation and, ultimately tissue / organ dysfunction. The cornea, the transparent tissue located on the anterior chamber of the eye, is extremely susceptible to fibrotic diseases, which cause loss of corneal transparency and are often associated with blindness. Although topical corticosteroids and antimetabolites are extensively used in the management of corneal fibrosis, they are associated with glaucoma, cataract formation, corneoscleral melting and infection, imposing the need of far more effective therapies. Herein, we summarise and discuss shortfalls and recent advances in in vitro models (e.g. transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) / ascorbic acid / interleukin (IL) induced) and drug (e.g. TGF-β inhibitors, epigenetic modulators) and gene (e.g. gene editing, gene silencing) therapeutic strategies in the corneal fibrosis context. Emerging therapeutical agents (e.g. neutralising antibodies, ligand traps, receptor kinase inhibitors, antisense oligonucleotides) that have shown promise in clinical setting but have not yet assessed in corneal fibrosis context are also discussed.