Gold nanotransducer-mediated optical neuromodulation: from photothermal and photoelectric mechanisms to neural therapy.

Neurological disorders, such as neurodegenerative diseases, traumatic nerve injuries, and sensory impairments, have become a severe global health concern, yet conventional therapies and current neuromodulation strategies are often hampered by inherent invasiveness and insufficient spatiotemporal precision. Functional nanomaterials capable of converting external stimuli into localized heat or electrical signals hold great potential for precise neuromodulation at the single cell level. Among them, gold nanostructures have attracted considerable attention owing to their distinct localized surface plasmon resonance, high photothermal conversion performance, electrical conductivity, and favorable biocompatibility. In this review, we provide a comprehensive understanding of gold nanostructure-mediated neuromodulation, with an in-depth discussion on photoelectric and photothermal regulatory mechanisms. We further discuss their emerging roles in regulating neuronal electrical activity and facilitating nerve regeneration after injury. Finally, we outline current challenges and opportunities in this field, aiming to provide a timely reference for the rational design of gold nanostructures-neural interfaces and next-generation neuromodulation platforms.