Targeted muscle reinnervation in bionic upper limb reconstruction: current status and future directions.

Selective nerve transfers are used in the setting of upper limb amputation to improve myoelectric prosthesis control. This surgical concept is referred to as targeted muscle reinnervation (TMR) and describes the rerouting of the major nerves of the arm onto the motor branches of the residual limb musculature. Aside from providing additional myosignals for prosthetic control, TMR can treat and prevent neuroma pain and possibly also phantom limb pain. This article reviews the history and current applications of TMR in upper limb amputation, with a focus on practical considerations. It further explores and identifies technological innovations to improve the man-machine interface in amputation care, particularly regarding implantable interfaces, such as muscle electrodes and osseointegration. Finally, future clinical directions and possible scientific avenues in this field are presented and critically discussed.