The hallmarks of oncogenic signaling: From pathways to resistance in cancer therapy.

Oncogenic signal transduction pathways play pivotal roles in tumor progression by regulating essential cellular processes such as proliferation, survival, angiogenesis, invasion, and immune evasion. These pathways are frequently deregulated in cancer due to genetic mutations, epigenetic modifications, or microenvironmental influences. These genetic or epigenetics shifts enable cancer cells to bypass growth suppressors, resist apoptosis, and sustain uncontrolled growth. While targeted therapies have shown promise in inhibiting these signaling cascades, therapeutic resistance and tumor heterogeneity remain major obstacles. To address these limitations, emerging strategies, including combination therapies, next-generation kinase inhibitors, and immunomodulatory approaches, are being developed to overcome these challenges. This review explores the molecular mechanisms underlying oncogenic pathway activation, their contributions to hallmark cancer traits and resistance, and therapeutic advancements targeting these pathways. By understanding these signaling networks, we aim to highlight opportunities for improving cancer treatment and addressing therapeutic resistance in the evolving landscape of oncology.