Current status and future prospective of vaccine development against Echinococcus granulosus.

Cystic echinococcosis (CE) is one of the most important zoonotic parasite diseases in human, livestock, and wildlife worldwide. Development of effective vaccines against CE appears to be the most promising strategy to control this infectious disease. Use of potential livestock and canine vaccines against the larval and adult stage of E. granulosus life cycle may be the key to the production of powerful vaccines. Some progress has been accomplished in the development of vaccines against hydatidosis using empirical approaches, while such immunotherapies often fail to induce adequate immune responses. Therefore, it is of great interest to identify antigens (Ags) with high immunogenicity and develop effective vaccines and adjuvant constructs against CE. To this end, various tools can be applied, including immune-based genomics and proteomics, immunoinformatics, systems vaccinology and mathematical/computational modeling. In this review, we aimed to provide comprehensive insights upon the current status of vaccination trials against E. granulosus, and also articulate some perspectives on the production of novel anti-CE vaccines. Use of novel prospective technologies is also discussed to highlight the importance of development and advancement of the next generation vaccines against E. granulosus.