Eco-smart solutions: harnessing phytoremediation to combat heavy metal pollution.

Heavy metals contamination poses a persistent threat to ecosystems and human health due to its toxicity, non-biodegradability, and tendency to bioaccumulate. This review systematically evaluates recent advances in phytoremediation as a sustainable strategy for mitigating heavy metals pollution, with a specific focus on underlying mechanisms, technological innovations, and field-scale applicability. The scope of the review encompasses major phytoremediation approaches, including phytoextraction, phytostabilization, phytovolatilization, phytodegradation, and rhizofiltration, alongside detailed analyses of plant-metals interactions, uptake and translocation pathways, and metal sequestration processes. Key findings highlight the critical role of plant-associated microorganisms, genetic engineering, and transgenic plants in improving metal tolerance, accumulation efficiency, and remediation rates. Evidence from recent field studies demonstrates that integrated phytoremediation systems can significantly enhance remediation performance when compared to single-approach strategies, although challenges related to metal bioavailability, site specificity, and long remediation timelines persist. Emerging developments such as nanophytoremediation and combined phytotechnological frameworks have been identified as promising solutions to overcome current limitations. Overall, this review provides new insights into the integration of biological, technological, and policy-driven approaches required to advance phytoremediation from experimental applications to large-scale environmental management.