In vivo and in vitro perspectives in Parkinson's disease: Mechanisms and the role of phytomedicine.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder marked by dopaminergic neuronal loss, oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and α-synuclein aggregation. Despite advances, current treatments only offer symptomatic relief without altering disease progression. This review aims to evaluate the therapeutic potential of plantderived phytochemicals in PD through evidence from both in vivo and in vitro experimental models. Key findings indicate that rodent models (e.g., MPTP, rotenone) and neuronal cell lines (e.g., SH-SY5Y) help replicate PD pathology and mechanistic insights. Phytochemicals such as baicalein, morin, ferulic acid, and bacopa demonstrate neuroprotective effects via antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and mitochondrial-stabilizing pathways. Nanotechnology and brain organoids further improve translational relevance. In conclusion, phytomedicines hold significant promise as adjunctive PD therapies. However, challenges such as poor bioavailability, model variability, and lack of clinical validation must be addressed through standardized protocols and long-term studies.