Spatial heterogeneity of the shorebird gastrointestinal microbiome.

The gastrointestinal tract (GIT) consists of connected structures that vary in function and physiology, and different GIT sections potentially provide different habitats for microorganisms. Birds possess unique GIT structures, including the oesophagus, proventriculus, gizzard, small intestine, caeca and large intestine. To understand birds as hosts of microbial ecosystems, we characterized the microbial communities in six sections of the GIT of two shorebird species, the Dunlin and Semipalmated Sandpiper, identified potential host species effects on the GIT microbiome and used microbial source tracking to determine microbial origin throughout the GIT. The upper three GIT sections had higher alpha diversity and genus richness compared to the lower sections, and microbial communities in the upper GIT showed no clustering. The proventriculus and gizzard microbiomes primarily originated from upstream sections, while the majority of the large intestine microbiome originated from the caeca. The heterogeneity of the GIT sections shown in our study urges caution in equating data from faeces or a single GIT component to the entire GIT microbiome but confirms that ecologically similar species may share many attributes in GIT microbiomes.