Non-thermal biological effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation: Mechanistic insights into male reproductive vulnerability in the era of ubiquitous exposure.

The rapid proliferation of wireless technologies has led to continuous, low-intensity exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation (RF-EMR) from devices such as mobile phones, Wi-Fi routers, and wearable electronics. Although RF-EMR is non-ionizing, a growing body of evidence indicates that chronic exposure can induce non-thermal biological effects with significant implications for male reproductive health. This review synthesizes current findings on the mechanistic pathways through which RF-EMR may impair fertility, focusing on oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, DNA damage, apoptosis, autophagy dysregulation, and hormonal disruption via hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis interference. Experimental and clinical studies consistently link RF-EMR exposure to reduced sperm count and motility, altered testicular architecture, blood-testis barrier compromise, and suppressed testosterone synthesis, often at specific absorption rates below current safety thresholds. These outcomes are underpinned by redox imbalance, mitochondrial collapse, and steroidogenic impairment, with emerging evidence for epigenetic and transgenerational effects. Existing regulatory frameworks, based largely on thermal safety limits, fail to address the complexity of real-world, multi-source, long-term exposures. The review highlights critical knowledge gaps, particularly regarding 5 G and millimeter-wave frequencies, and underscores the need for standardized research protocols, biologically relevant exposure metrics, and precautionary public health measures to mitigate reproductive risks in an increasingly wireless environment.