Effect of cadmium exposure on ovarian abnormalities.

The ovary is a key organ regulator of female reproductive health, coordinating steroid hormone production, follicular development, and ovulation, while also contributing to broader physiological homeostasis. The intricate hormonal networks governing ovarian function render this organ particularly vulnerable to disruption by endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), including the heavy metal cadmium (Cd). Evidence suggest that Cd exposure adversely affects multiple aspects of proper ovarian function. In this review, we synthesize current findings on the relationship between Cd exposure and ovarian dysfunction, with a focus on alterations in ovarian morphology, steroidogenesis, folliculogenesis, and epigenetic regulation. The reviewed literature encompasses in vitro and in vivo mammalian studies, and epidemiological investigations. In addition, we identify key knowledge gaps and methodological limitations that warrant further investigation. Collectively, available data support a strong association between Cd exposure and impaired ovarian function. Future research should prioritize mechanistic studies to clarify Cd-mediated molecular pathways within the ovary and expand human studies across distinct life stages to better characterize the reproductive health risks associated with Cd exposure.