Development and Validation of Tawbah Scale Among Pakistani Muslims.

Tawbah (repentance) holds a central place in Islamic theology, serving as both a spiritual imperative and a path to psychological renewal. Despite its theological richness, tawbah remains underexplored in empirical psychological research, particularly within Muslim populations. The present study aimed to develop and validate a multidimensional Tawbah Scale (TS) grounded in Islamic teachings and contextualized within Pakistani Muslim culture. Drawing on Qur'anic exegesis, focus group discussions, and semi-structured interviews with religious scholars and laypersons, an initial item pool was generated. Two studies were conducted: Study 1 (N = 535) employed exploratory factor analysis to determine the scale's factorial structure, resulting in a 36-item instrument encompassing six dimensions-repentance, seeking istighfar and resolution to abstain, expiation to God, spiritual enrichment, conviction in divine mercy, and interpersonal atonement. Study 2 (N = 1161) confirmed this structure through second-order confirmatory factor analysis, demonstrating strong model fit, reliability, and validity. The scale showed significant positive associations with divine forgiveness, afterlife beliefs, and spiritual well-being, while remaining distinct from religious scrupulosity, supporting both its convergent and discriminant validity. Measurement invariance across Sunni and non-Sunni Muslims further established the scale's cross-sectarian applicability. This indigenous measure contributes to Islamic psychology by offering a robust empirical framework to examine tawbah as a transformative spiritual and psychological process.