Sex differences and heritability of adrenal steroidogenesis in offspring rats induced by prenatal nicotine exposure.

The epidemiological investigation has suggested prenatal nicotine exposure (PNE) induces multiorgan developmental toxicity and increases the risk of metabolic diseases in offspring. Our previous study found that the occurrence of fetal-originated diseases was associated with abnormal adrenal development in offspring. However, the long-term harmful effects on adrenal development in offspring induced by PNE remain unclear. Pregnant Wistar rats were injected subcutaneously with nicotine (2 mg/kg·d) from gestation day (GD) 9 to GD20 to obtain the adrenal gland from fetal and adult offspring rats of F1 and F2 generations. We found that the adrenal insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1) signaling pathway and steroidogenic function were increased in male while decreased in female of PNE fetal rats, which could extend into adulthood. Furthermore, the primary adrenal cells of fetal rats were treated with nicotine to observe the phenomena and clarify the possible mechanism of the sex difference. The results suggested that there are sex differences in IGF1 signaling pathway and steroidogenic function induced by PNE, which may be associated with sex differences in nAChRβ1 expression. In addition, the adrenal steroidogenic function was reduced in F2 offspring of F1 PNE female rats (regardless of mating with control or Male PNE rats). Therefore, the decrease of adrenal steroidogenic function in female offspring rats induced by PNE has maternal heritability. In conclusion, PNE could lead to sex differences and heritability of adrenal steroidogenic function in offspring rats.