TransDose: a transformer-based UNet model for fast and accurate dose calculation for MR-LINACs.

Objective. To present a transformer-based UNet model (TransDose) for fast and accurate dose calculation for magnetic resonance-linear accelerators (MR-LINACs).Approach. A 2D fluence map from each beam was first projected into a 3D fluence volume and then fed into the TransDose model together with patient density volume and output predicted beam dose. The proposed TransDose model combined a 3D residual UNet with a transformer encoder, where convolutional layers extracted the volumetric spatial features, and the transformer encoder processed the long-range dependencies in a global space. Ninety-eight cases with four tumor sites (brain, nasopharynx, lung, and rectum) treated with fixed-beam intensity-modulated radiotherapy were included in the dataset; 78 cases were used for model training and validation; and 20 cases were used for testing. The ground-truth beam doses were calculated with Monte Carlo (MC) simulations within 1% statistical uncertainty and magnetic field strengthB = 1.5 T in the superior and inferior direction. Beam angles from the training and validation datasets were rotated 2-5 times, and doses were recalculated to augment the datasets.Results. The dose-volume histograms and indices between the predicted and MC doses showed good consistency. The average 3Dγ-passing rates (3%/2 mm, for dose regions above 10% of maximum dose) were 99.13 ± 0.89% (brain), 98.31 ± 1.92% (nasopharynx), 98.74 ± 0.70% (lung), and 99.28 ± 0.25% (rectum). The average dose calculation time, which included the fluence projection and model prediction, was less than 310 ms for each beam.Significance. We successfully developed a transformer-based UNet dose calculation model-TransDose in magnetic fields. Its accuracy and efficiency indicated its potential for use in online adaptive plan optimization for MR-LINACs.