Emerging Therapeutic Strategies in Oral Cancer: Epigenetic, Mitochondrial and Immunotherapy Approaches.

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is the most common type of oral cancer and poses treatment challenges owing to genetic, epigenetic and environmental factors. Conventional treatments, including surgery, chemotherapy and radiation therapy, often have limitations in terms of efficacy and tolerability. Advances in epigenetic therapies such as DNA methyltransferase and histone deacetylase inhibitors offer promising avenues for reversing abnormal gene expression in OSCC. Mitochondria-targeted therapies leverage metabolic disruption and reactive oxygen species modulation to induce apoptosis. Immunotherapy, particularly with immune checkpoint inhibitors and cancer vaccines, enhances the immune response against cancer cells. This review explores the interplay between the tumour microenvironment and oral microbiome in OSCC progression and treatment response. Additionally, RNA interference therapy and nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems enable targeted therapeutic strategies, reduce off-target effects and improve efficacy. Although these approaches show potential, challenges in clinical translation remain. The integration of precision medicine with innovative drug delivery systems can significantly improve patient outcomes in oral cancer management.