Construction of testicular organoids and their applications in the field of toxicology.

The decline in male sperm quality significantly contributes to infertility among couples of reproductive age, threatening human reproductive health. Environmental pollutants are one of the key contributors, driving research into their mechanisms and potential solutions. Although animal and cell models are commonly used to study reproductive toxicity, they have their limitations. Testicular organoids are new in vitro models that can replicate the structure and function of testes, providing a promising platform for toxicity assessments. Despite advancements, challenges persist in standardization, development techniques, and practical applications. This article systematically reviews how factors such as cell densities, 3D culture platforms, and preservation conditions influence the construction of testicular organoids. We summarize and discuss the optimal methods and conditions for constructing testicular organoids. It also reviews their applications in evaluating the toxic effects of environmental endocrine disruptors and screening drugs for reproductive toxicity. This review offers references and insights that support the development of testicular organoid technology and its potential applications in toxicology.