The Impact of Transportation Infrastructure on Women's Employment in India.

Indian women's labor force participation is extremely low and they are much less likely than men to work in the non-farm sector. Earlier research explained women's labor supply by individual characteristics, social institutions, and cultural norms, but not enough attention has been paid to the labor market opportunity structure that constrains women's labor market activities. Using data from the India Human Development Survey (IHDS) in 2004-05 and 2011-12, we examine how village transportation infrastructure affects women's and men's agricultural and non-agricultural employment. Results from fixed-effect analysis show that access by paved or unpaved roads and frequent bus services increase the odds of non-agricultural employment among both males and females. The effect of road access on non-farm employment (relative to not-working) is stronger among women than among men. Improved transportation infrastructure has a stronger positive effect on women's non-farm employment in communities with more egalitarian gender norms.