Advances in liver and pancreas organoids: how far we have come and where we go next.

Over the past decade, advances in organoid culturing methods have enabled the growth of three-dimensional cellular cultures in vitro with increasing fidelity with respect to the cellular composition, architecture and function of in vivo organs. The increased accessibility and ability to manipulate organoids as an in vitro system have led to a shift in the landscape of experimental biology. Whether derived from stem cells or tissue-resident cells, organoids are now routinely used in studies of development, homeostasis, regeneration and disease modelling, including viral infection and cancer. These applications of organoids are highly relevant for gastrointestinal tissues, including the liver and pancreas. In this Review, we explore the current and emerging advances in liver and pancreas organoid technologies for both discovery and clinical translation research and provide an outlook on the challenges ahead.