Phthalate esters in riverine systems: A comprehensive review of their occurrence, detection, environmental fate, and ecotoxicological impacts.

Phthalate esters (PAEs), which are widely used as plasticizers in various industrial processes, pose significant risks to ecosystems and human health as emerging pollutants. This study aimed to compare different methods for extracting PAEs, quantifying their concentrations, and assessing the health risks associated with exposure to these contaminants. Based on the reviewed studies, solid-phase extraction (SPE) was the preferred sample preparation technique in approximately 60 % of cases due to its efficiency, low solvent consumption, and strong enrichment capabilities. Moreover, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was the most commonly used detection method, applied in 78.8 % of the studies for accurate quantification. The reported concentrations of PAEs in river water ranged from 100 to 300,000 ng/L. Studies indicated that di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and dibutyl phthalate (DBP) were the most frequently detected PAEs, present in 90 % and 91.25 % of river systems, respectively. Peak concentrations were reported as 60 μg/L in water, 41.4 μg/g in sediments, and 1.586 μg/g in aquatic organisms. Studies have indicated that both DEHP and DBP exhibit high Risk Quotient (RQ > 1) values, suggesting significant ecological risks to aquatic organisms. These risks include potential endocrine disruption, growth inhibition, and metabolic dysfunction, as observed in environmental studies. Additionally, some studies have reported high Hazard Quotient (HQ > 1) values for human exposure, indicating possible non-carcinogenic health effects resulting from chronic intake. Effective monitoring and mitigation strategies are essential to minimize the environmental and public health impacts of PAEs. Overall, this review highlights the widespread occurrence and persistence of PAEs in riverine environments, emphasizing their potential to disrupt ecological balance and pose health risks. Continued research, along with stricter regulatory measures, is crucial to control their release and safeguard environmental and human health.