Human exposure to organophosphate esters (OPEs): A meta-analytic review of levels and distribution.

With the global increase in organophosphate ester (OPE) usage, contamination has extended beyond environmental media into the human body, raising significant biosafety concerns. In this study, we conducted a meta-analysis of 254,581 data points from 98 studies spanning multiple regions worldwide. This large-scale synthesis allowed us to minimize regional bias and generate a quantitative profile of human OPE contamination and related risks. Our findings revealed notably high levels of TPHP and TCIPP in human samples. Additionally, we identified a significant correlation between OPE hydrophobicity (logKow) and their distribution between dynamic and cumulative biological matrices. Subgroup analyses further demonstrated a strong inverse relationship between national Environmental Performance Index (EPI) scores and population-level OPE contamination, underscoring the role of environmental governance in reducing chemical exposure and biosafety risks. Based on these findings, we estimated adults' daily internal exposure doses and evaluated the corresponding health risks. Although exposure to eleven OPEs remained below established safety thresholds, our results highlight the need for ongoing efforts to curb environmental OPE emissions and promote safer chemical alternatives.