Linguatulosis in food animals and carnivores: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Linguatulosis, caused by Linguatula serrata, commonly known as the tongue worm, primarily affects food animals and carnivores and poses a potential zoonotic risk. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the global prevalence of L. serrata in these hosts. A comprehensive search identified 55 studies involving 36,242 samples from food animals and 1530 samples from carnivores across four continents. The results indicated significant variability in prevalence rates, with food animals showing a pooled prevalence of 19.1 %, and carnivores exhibiting a higher pooled prevalence of 35.5 %. The prevalence in food animals varied across species, with goats having the highest prevalence at 32.6 %, followed by camels (19.3 %), cattle (15.8 %), sheep (13.6 %), and buffalo (10.6 %). The analysis showed substantial heterogeneity (I² = 98.9 % for food animals and I² = 96.6 % for carnivores), which was influenced by factors such as host species, diagnostic methods, and sample types. Meta-regression analysis showed that host species was a significant moderator of prevalence. Sensitivity analysis and bias tests confirmed the robustness of the findings, with consistent pooled prevalence estimates and no significant publication bias. Geographic analysis showed regional differences, with particularly high prevalence rates in Bangladesh, India, Iran, and Nigeria. The study also observed temporal fluctuations, with peak prevalence recorded during 2016-2020 for food animals and 2006-2010 for carnivores. These findings emphasize the need for targeted surveillance and control strategies, particularly in regions with high transmission risks, and the importance of standardized diagnostic methods to reduce variability in future studies.