Programming by maternal obesity: a pathway to poor cardiometabolic health in the offspring.

There is an ever increasing prevalence of maternal obesity worldwide such that in many populations over half of women enter pregnancy either overweight or obese. This review aims to summarise the impact of maternal obesity on offspring cardiometabolic outcomes. Maternal obesity is associated with increased risk of adverse maternal and pregnancy outcomes. However, beyond this exposure to maternal obesity during development also increases the risk of her offspring developing long-term adverse cardiometabolic outcomes throughout their adult life. Both human studies and those in experimental animal models have shown that maternal obesity can programme increased risk of offspring developing obesity and adipose tissue dysfunction; type 2 diabetes with peripheral insulin resistance and β-cell dysfunction; CVD with impaired cardiac structure and function and hypertension via impaired vascular and kidney function. As female offspring themselves are therefore likely to enter pregnancy with poor cardiometabolic health this can lead to an inter-generational cycle perpetuating the transmission of poor cardiometabolic health across generations. Maternal exercise interventions have the potential to mitigate some of the adverse effects of maternal obesity on offspring health, although further studies into long-term outcomes and how these translate to a clinical context are still required.