Role of endogenous incretin hormones, GLP-1 and GIP, in cardiovascular physiology.

Obesity, type 2 diabetes (T2D), and cardiovascular disease are closely related conditions contributing to the global rise in cardiometabolic disease. Incretin hormones, glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) have emerged as critical regulators of glucose metabolism, pancreatic function, and cardiovascular physiology. However, despite increasing clinical use of GLP-1 receptor agonists and dual GLP-1/GIP agonists, the precise mechanisms by which endogenous incretins influence cardiovascular tissues remain incompletely understood, particularly in the context of obesity and T2D. This review explores the signalling mechanisms and physiological actions of natural endogenous GLP-1 and GIP, with a focus on cardiovascular physiology. Endogenous GLP-1 promotes insulin secretion, β-cell survival, and appetite suppression, and exerts protective effects on the endothelium. GLP-1 also reduces inflammation, enhances nitric oxide production, and improves myocardial glucose utilization during ischemia. Endogenous GIP is involved in insulin secretion, β-cell survival, and adipogenesis. In obesity and T2D, incretin secretion and insulinotropic effects are altered. The therapeutic potential of GLP-1 receptor agonists and emerging dual GLP-1/GIP agonists has been shown to aid in managing metabolic dysfunction and, more recently, in preventing cardiovascular complications.