Electrochemical biosensors in early detection of Parkinson disease.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder affecting the motor system, with symptoms including tremors, rigidity, bradykinesia, and postural instability. Affecting over six million people globally, PD's pathophysiology is marked by the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. Early diagnosis is crucial for effective management, yet current methods are limited by low sensitivity, high cost, and the need for advanced equipment. Electrochemical biosensors have emerged as promising tools for early PD diagnosis, converting biological reactions into measurable electrical signals for evaluating PD biomarkers. Advances in nanotechnology and material science have led to innovative sensing platforms with enhanced sensitivity and selectivity. Key biomarkers such as alpha-synuclein (α-syn), dopamine (DA), and microRNAs (miRNAs) have been targeted using these biosensors. For instance, gold nanoparticle-modified graphene immunosensors have shown ultra-sensitive detection of α-syn, while graphene-based biosensors have demonstrated high sensitivity for DA detection. Additionally, nanobiosensors for miR-195 and electrochemical aptasensors have shown potential for early PD diagnosis. The integration of nanomaterials like gold nanoparticles, quantum dots, and carbon nanotubes has further advanced the field, enhancing electrochemical activity and sensitivity. These developments offer a reliable, rapid, and cost-effective approach for early PD diagnosis, paving the way for better management and treatment. Continued research is essential for the commercialization and clinical integration of these biosensors, ultimately improving patient outcomes.