Multiple faces of anxiety: a frontal lobe perspective.

Marked dysregulation of the human prefrontal cortex (PFC) and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) characterises a variety of anxiety disorders, and its amelioration is a key feature of treatment success. Overall treatment response, however, is highly variable, and about a third of patients are resistant to treatment. In this review we hypothesise that a major contributor to this variation in treatment response are the multiple faces of anxiety induced by distinct forms of frontal cortex dysregulation. Comparison of findings from humans and non-human primates reveals marked similarity in the functional organisation of threat regulation across the frontal lobes. This organisation is discussed in relation to the 'predatory imminence continuum' model of threat and the differential engagement of executive functions at the core of both emotion generation and regulation strategies.