Applying Monte Carlo simulation to assess health risks of potentially toxic elements in fruits and nuts grown in the capital of Iran.

This study investigated harmful elements (PHEs) in three fruits (figs, oranges, persimmons) and two nuts (walnuts, hazelnuts) grown in Tehran, Iran, using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) to evaluate health risks. The results showed that chromium (Cr) exceeded the 0.1 mg/kg standard in walnuts (mean = 6.15 mg/kg) and figs (mean = 5.23 mg/kg). Copper (Cu) surpassed 2 mg/kg in all produce except figs. Arsenic (As) exceeded the standard in walnuts, persimmons, and oranges, while cadmium (Cd) surpassed the limit only in persimmons. Iron (Fe) levels were significantly high, peaking in persimmons (mean = 71.79 mg/kg). Lead (Pb), manganese (Mn), and mercury (Hg) exceeded safety limits in all samples, while barium (Ba) was the most abundant metal, especially in hazelnuts and oranges. The correlation and clustering analysis indicated that the sources of PHEs may be influenced by a combination of agricultural practices, atmospheric transport, traffic emissions, historical pollution, and natural background levels. Monte Carlo simulation results show Pb poses the highest non-carcinogenic risk for children (TTHQ50th: 12.56) and adults (TTHQ50th: 5.62). Ni presents the highest carcinogenic risk (TCR50th: 1.58E-03 for children, 3.50E-03 for adults. Hence, urgent monitoring of PHEs in local produce is essential.