Investigating the Concentration of Potentially Toxic Elements (PTEs) in Bird Eggs: a Comprehensive Systematic Review, Meta-Analysis, and Probabilistic Risk Assessment.

This study investigated the concentration of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in bird eggs and assessed consumer health risks using the Monte Carlo Simulation (MCS) model. We searched several databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, Science Direct, Embase, and PubMed, covering the period from January 1, 2000, to October 10, 2024. Our analysis included 58 papers and 82 data reports. The ranking of PTEs in the eggs based on pooled concentration was as follows: Nickel (Ni) at 0.935 mg/kg, Lead (Pb) at 0.305 mg/kg, Arsenic (As) at 0.048 mg/kg, Cadmium (Cd) at 0.026 mg/kg, and Mercury (Hg) at 0.007 mg/kg. The countries with the highest hazard quotient (HQ) due to Pb were Palestine, Saudi Arabia, and Australia. For Cd, the highest HQs were found in the USA, Turkey, and Pakistan; Hg, Colombia, Romania, and Thailand; As, Malaysia, Belgium, and Germany; and Ni, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, and the USA. Regarding cancer risk (CR), the countries with the highest values for As were Malaysia, Belgium, and Germany. The ranking of PTEs according to the percentage of studies with an HQ greater than 1 for adult consumers was as follows: Hg (8%), Pb (4%), and Ni and As showed values of 0%, while Cd also recorded 0%. For children, the ranking was As (18%), Hg (17%), Pb (4%), and again, both Ni and Cd showed 0%. The percentage of studies indicating a CR greater than 1E-4 for adults due to inorganic arsenic (iAs) was 24%, while for children, it was 35%. Given the high risk of carcinogenesis associated with As, it is recommended that effective measures be taken to minimize the sources of iAs in eggs.