Complications of image-guided radiofrequency ablation of renal cell carcinoma: causes, imaging features and prevention methods.

Radiofrequency (RF) ablation is an alternative treatment for renal cell carcinoma (RCC) in patients unable to undergo surgery. Although RF ablation has a low complication rate because of its minimally invasive nature, unintended heat may be conducted by several critical organs during ablation procedures, leading to a variety of complications. Major complications that usually require treatment include bowel injury, ureteral injury, massive bleeding and residual or recurrent tumour. Minor complications that may require only observation include pain, haematoma, haematuria, neuromuscular injury, pneumothorax, infarction and inflammatory tract mass. The most common cause of complications is the tumour's proximity to neighbouring organs. In addition, careless electrode manipulation and the patient's comorbidities may also lead to complications. To avoid many of these complications, the distance between the tumour and neighbouring organs should be widened using methods such as changing the patient's position, using the RF electrode as a lever and hydrodissection. Furthermore, carefully manipulating the RF electrode and assessing the patient's general condition help to prevent complications. In this review, we discuss the complications resulting from RF ablation of RCC with an emphasis on causes, imaging features and prevention methods.