Urolithiasis in patients with cancer.

Urolithiasis is increasingly common, with rising rates driven by obesity, diabetes and metabolic syndrome. Patients with cancer have additional, unique risks of stone formation owing to effects on fluid and electrolyte balance, systemic cancer therapies, tumour lysis syndrome and anatomical alterations after urinary diversion or nephrectomy. Moreover, urolithiasis itself has been linked to increased rates of renal cell carcinoma, urothelial carcinoma and bladder cancer, potentially mediated by chronic inflammation, recurrent infections and shared metabolic or environmental factors. Management in this setting is complex and must be individualized. Percutaneous nephrolithotomy achieves the highest stone-free rates in patients with altered urinary tract anatomy, whereas retrograde intrarenal surgery and shock wave lithotripsy have more selective roles. Preventive strategies focus on thorough metabolic evaluation, hydration optimization and addressing cancer-specific risk factors such as hypercalcaemia, acidosis and chronic urinary stasis. Despite these insights, data on the epidemiology, mechanistic underpinnings and optimal management of urolithiasis in patients with cancer remain limited. Prospective studies are needed to clarify causal relationships, refine preventive strategies and develop evidence-based treatment algorithms for this growing and complex population.