Reconsidering vaccinate-to-live strategies in EU foot-and-mouth disease control.

In January 2025, FMD was detected in water buffalos near Berlin. A few weeks later, a different FMDV-strain was confirmed on dairy farms in Slovakia and Hungary. Since February 2026, Cyprus and Lesvos are confronted with FMD-outbreaks. While Europe is rethinking its FMD-strategies, the two affected member states, Cyprus and Greece, take opposite approaches to control the disease. FMD-vaccination was pivotal for its eradication in many parts of the world. Such regions fought new outbreaks by traditional animal-disease-control. In 2001, a devastating FMD-epizootic swept across the UK and continental Europe. Several million sheep, cattle, and pigs were culled. In the aftermath, OIE (now: WOAH) and EU revised their FMD-strategies. Now, WOAH's Terrestrial Animal Health Code puts strong emphasis on reactive vaccination. An FMD-free status can be regained without slaughtering all vaccinated animals. By contrast, the European FMD Directive of 2003, which contained similar provisions, was repealed. Under the new Delegated Regulation, all restrictions on a vaccination zone are upheld until the last vaccinated animal is removed. Cyprus implemented country-wide FMD-vaccination despite these restrictions. Fearing trade barriers, Greece decided not to vaccinate. Were the consequences not so dramatic, a better head-to-head comparison would hardly be conceivable. Modern FMD-vaccines induce robust immunity after just seven days, minimize virus transmission and allow for DIVA strategies. In addition to the risks posed by global trade and travel, Europe faces major social, economic, and geopolitical challenges. The risk of FMDV incursions is imminent. Cyprus can afford to live with trade restrictions, because export of live animals, raw dairy products and fresh meat only play a minor role in its economy. This would be entirely different if livestock-dense regions in the heart of the continent were affected. The EU must not forgo highly effective and ethically superior control measures that could mitigate socio-economic consequences of future FMD-outbreaks.