Venoms of Parasitoid Wasps: Diversity, Functions, and Evolutionary Insights.

The venoms of parasitoid wasps are crucial for the successful development of their offspring within or on arthropod hosts because they manipulate host physiology and behavior. Recent advancements in high-throughput omics (e.g., genomics, transcriptomics, and proteomics) have revolutionized the study of parasitoid wasp venoms. These rapidly developing technologies have provided significant insights into many aspects of venom biology. However, despite the rapid pace of venom protein discovery through venomics approaches, functional studies have lagged. We summarize the current state of venom protein research in parasitoid wasps, highlighting how venomics has greatly expanded the discovery of venom proteins. We review the diverse biological functions and underlying mechanisms of venom proteins in regulating host immune responses, development, metabolism, and behavior. In addition, we emphasize the rapid evolutionary turnover of venom-encoding genes and discuss how venomics data can trace their evolutionary trajectories, highlighting their diversification and complex evolutionary history.