European food-based dietary guidelines: mapping methodological heterogeneity, sustainability integration gaps and implementation barriers.

INTRODUCTION

Food-Based Dietary Guidelines (FBDGs) are increasingly recognized as instruments to support sustainable food systems. However, substantial heterogeneity persists across Europe regarding different aspects. This paper provides a policy-oriented review of the main shortcomings affecting European FBDGs and discusses actionable recommendations to improve harmonization and effectiveness across countries.

METHODOLOGY: The analysis was based on a targeted literature review and consultations with project partners and national competent authorities involved in FBDGs development. The review focused on four main areas: methodological approaches, integration of environmental sustainability, standardization issues (food groups and portion sizes), and implementation and communication gaps.

RESULTS

The findings of this study highlight marked variability across European countries in the methods used to develop FBDGs, with only a limited number of countries adopting mathematical optimization models and integrating environmental sustainability criteria (Germany, the Netherlands and Denmark). Considerable inconsistencies were also identified in food group classifications and portion size definition, limiting cross-country comparability. In addition, implementation and dissemination strategies remain fragmented, with only a few European countries reporting structured operational plans, dedicated budgets, and monitoring systems.

DISCUSSION: This work emphasizes the need for stronger European coordination to support methodological harmonization while preserving national cultural adaptation. Actionable recommendations include the development of a shared methodological framework, the integration of sustainability indicators into dietary modelling approach, the harmonization of food group and portion size terminology, and the strengthening of implementation, communication, and monitoring strategies.