Impact of Pesticides on Vertebrates.

Pesticides are widely used in agricultural systems globally, and wild vertebrates are commonly exposed to them in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. This review synthesizes current knowledge on pesticide classes, environmental fate, exposure pathways, and their effects across major nonhuman vertebrate taxa. We highlight both direct toxic effects, including neurotoxicity, endocrine disruption, and oxidative stress, and indirect exposure mediated through food web alterations. Aquatic vertebrates, particularly fish and amphibians, emerge as highly vulnerable due to continuous exposure of sensitive developmental stages. Despite growing evidence, significant knowledge gaps persist, notably for reptiles and in understanding chronic and mixture exposure. Current regulatory frameworks remain limited by their focus on model species and acute toxicity endpoints. We argue that pesticides play a substantial, though context dependent, role in vertebrate declines and emphasize the need for integrative, ecologically realistic approaches to improve risk assessment and biodiversity conservation.