Aggregate risk assessment of bisphenols A, S, and F among the general Korean population.

Bisphenol A (BPA) and its substitutes Bisphenol S (BPS) and Bisphenol F (BPF) have been identified as endocrine-disrupting chemicals that affects reproductive functions. In Korea, BPA use has been restricted, resulting in increased utilisation of BPS and BPF as alternatives. However, risk assessment and exposure management of these alternatives remain limited. Therefore, we conducted a risk assessment of BPA, BPS, and BPF prioritising human-use products while considering additional environmental exposure pathways. Product concentration data, usage amounts, and frequency factors were studied for products considered in the National Institute of Food and Drug Safety Evaluation between 2023 and 2024. Based on the data, the estimated daily exposure levels of the general Korean population indicated that food is the primary source of bisphenol exposure. The age-specific exposure levels corresponded to 0.02-0.12% of the health-based guidance value. Risk characterisation based on the hazard index for BPA and the margin of exposure approach for BPS and BPF revealed that current regulatory measures have managed BPA, BPS, and BPF exposures effectively. Reassessment should be considered if new evidence of unrecognised toxicities becomes available. These findings highlight the need for continuous monitoring of alternative bisphenols to ensure public health protection.