Farmers' perceptions of livestock drinking water quality and associated risk factors for reported livestock illness and productivity losses in free-range ruminant systems.

Drinking water quality is a critical determinant of livestock health and productivity, yet information on farmers' perceptions of water quality and associated livestock health outcomes in communal free-range production systems remains limited. This study investigated farmers' perceptions of livestock drinking water quality and identified factors associated with reported livestock illness and productivity losses attributed to poor drinking water quality in communal free-range ruminant. A cross-sectional survey of 240 livestock farmers was conducted using a structured questionnaire that covered socio-demographic characteristics, water sources, perceived water-quality challenges, livestock health and productivity outcomes, and water-management practices. A five-item livestock water-quality risk perception index was evaluated using reliability analysis and principal axis factoring before a composite perception index was generated. Associations between perception scores and reported outcomes were assessed using one-way analysis of variance, while bivariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses were performed to identify factors independently associated with reported livestock illness and productivity losses. The livestock water-quality risk perception index demonstrated acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.754) and a unidimensional structure, explaining 44.16% of the total variance. Farmers showed a high level of awareness regarding the adverse effects of poor drinking water quality on livestock health and productivity but reported widespread reliance on natural surface water sources and seasonal water shortages. Lower perception index scores, indicating stronger awareness of water-related risks, were significantly associated (P < 0.05) with reported livestock illness and productivity losses. In the adjusted models, perception index remained independently associated with both reported livestock illness (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 0.76, 95% CI: 0.63-0.90) and reported productivity losses (AOR = 0.75, 95% CI: 0.63-0.89), while greater distance to livestock water sources independently increased the odds of reported livestock illness (AOR = 0.29, 95% CI: 0.12-0.69). These findings demonstrate that farmers' perceptions represent valuable experiential knowledge that reflects field-level livestock health risks and highlight the importance of improving drinking water quality and accessibility as integral components of preventive veterinary medicine, climate-resilient livestock production and One Health interventions in communal grazing systems.