Journal of gastrointestinal surgery : official journal of the Society for Surgery of the Alimentary Tract · 2026
Perforated and Complicated Cholecystitis: A Narrative Review of Diagnosis, Management, and Differentiation from Gallbladder Cancer.
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Callahan Elizabeth, Vanderpuye Aida, Szuwalski Julianna, Yasmine Nikahat, Aswani Yashant, Pawlik Timothy M, Aziz Hassan
Аннотация
INTRODUCTION: Perforated cholecystitis is a severe complication of gallbladder inflammation that is associated with substantial morbidity and mortality. Diagnosis is often challenging because clinical and radiographic findings overlap with those of uncomplicated cholecystitis and, in some cases, gallbladder malignancy. This review summarizes the current evidence regarding the diagnosis, imaging, management strategies, outcomes, and differentiation of perforated cholecystitis from gallbladder cancer.
METHODS: A comprehensive literature review was conducted using PubMed and Embase from inception to May 2026. Eligible studies included full-text articles, case reports, and original research describing perforated cholecystitis with an emphasis on diagnosis, treatment, outcomes, and gallbladder cancer mimicry.
RESULTS: Gallbladder perforation results from progressive inflammation, ischemia, and mural necrosis, most commonly involving the fundus of the gallbladder. The Niemeier classification categorizes perforations into acute free perforation (Type I), localized perforation with abscess formation (Type II), and chronic perforation with fistula formation (Type III). Advanced age, male sex, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, delayed presentation, and non-operative management were identified as important risk factors. Computed tomography (CT) was the most sensitive diagnostic modality, demonstrating wall defects, pericholecystic collections, abscesses, bilomas, and extraluminal gallstones. Management includes cholecystectomy, percutaneous cholecystostomy, and interval surgery for selected high-risk patients. Evidence regarding the optimal surgical timing remains inconsistent. Chronic perforation and xanthogranulomatous inflammation may closely mimic gallbladder carcinoma on imaging and intraoperative assessment.
CONCLUSION: Perforated cholecystitis is a diagnostically challenging and potentially life-threatening condition. CT imaging is central to diagnosis, while management should be individualized according to the patient status and perforation type. Greater recognition of the features distinguishing perforation from gallbladder malignancy may facilitate earlier diagnosis and improve outcomes. When malignancy is a significant consideration, and the patient's condition permits, consider early referral to an HPB surgeon or multidisciplinary hepatobiliary team to guide further diagnostic evaluation, including tissue acquisition when appropriate, and definitive surgical planning.
METHODS: A comprehensive literature review was conducted using PubMed and Embase from inception to May 2026. Eligible studies included full-text articles, case reports, and original research describing perforated cholecystitis with an emphasis on diagnosis, treatment, outcomes, and gallbladder cancer mimicry.
RESULTS: Gallbladder perforation results from progressive inflammation, ischemia, and mural necrosis, most commonly involving the fundus of the gallbladder. The Niemeier classification categorizes perforations into acute free perforation (Type I), localized perforation with abscess formation (Type II), and chronic perforation with fistula formation (Type III). Advanced age, male sex, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, delayed presentation, and non-operative management were identified as important risk factors. Computed tomography (CT) was the most sensitive diagnostic modality, demonstrating wall defects, pericholecystic collections, abscesses, bilomas, and extraluminal gallstones. Management includes cholecystectomy, percutaneous cholecystostomy, and interval surgery for selected high-risk patients. Evidence regarding the optimal surgical timing remains inconsistent. Chronic perforation and xanthogranulomatous inflammation may closely mimic gallbladder carcinoma on imaging and intraoperative assessment.
CONCLUSION: Perforated cholecystitis is a diagnostically challenging and potentially life-threatening condition. CT imaging is central to diagnosis, while management should be individualized according to the patient status and perforation type. Greater recognition of the features distinguishing perforation from gallbladder malignancy may facilitate earlier diagnosis and improve outcomes. When malignancy is a significant consideration, and the patient's condition permits, consider early referral to an HPB surgeon or multidisciplinary hepatobiliary team to guide further diagnostic evaluation, including tissue acquisition when appropriate, and definitive surgical planning.