American journal of preventive medicine · 2026
Lead Ammunition Use and Post-Shooting Hygiene Practices Among U.S. Firearm Owners.
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Hoover Christian, Hemenway David
Аннотация
INTRODUCTION: Lead is a neurotoxicant with no safe exposure level. Firearm use represents an underrecognized source of exposure through aerosolized lead from ammunition and primers, with the potential for secondary and tertiary take-home exposures that may affect children. Few studies have quantified firearm use, and to the authors' knowledge, none have considered ammunition type or post-shooting hygiene behaviors.
METHODS: A cross-sectional analysis of the National Firearm Survey, a nationally representative survey conducted in December 2024 and analyzed in 2025-2026, was performed. The sample included adults aged 18 or older who owned a firearm, reported firing a firearm in the past year, used lead-based ammunition (or were unsure of the type), and answered questions about post-shooting hygiene behavior (n=1,565). Participants reported demographic and geographic characteristics (e.g., race, U.S. region, child in household) and firearm behaviors (e.g., shooting frequency, duration, indoor shooting, and storage practices). Outcomes were self-reported post-shooting hygiene behaviors (e.g., showering, changing clothes or shoes, isolating gear before entering the home), examined individually and as a summed continuous index using quasi-Poisson regression. Weighted percentages and rate ratios were estimated.
RESULTS: Among U.S. firearm owners who shot in the past year (75% male, 57% aged 31-59 years), 97% reported using lead-based ammunition or were unsure of the type. Most reported shooting monthly or less (94%) but for ≥30 minutes (91%); 32% primarily shot indoors. Overall, 46% (95% CI=43%, 49%) engaged in no post-shooting hygiene behaviors, and 30% (95% CI=27%, 33%) engaged in only 1. Hygiene behaviors were more common among non-White, younger, urban-dwelling individuals with higher education and income and among those who shot more frequently and for longer durations. Approximately 6 million U.S. children live in households where firearms with lead-based ammunition are shot annually and where caregivers report no post-shooting hygiene behaviors.
CONCLUSIONS: The use of lead-based ammunition is nearly universal among U.S. shooters, while post-shooting hygiene behaviors are uncommon and may represent a substantial pathway for residential lead exposure.
METHODS: A cross-sectional analysis of the National Firearm Survey, a nationally representative survey conducted in December 2024 and analyzed in 2025-2026, was performed. The sample included adults aged 18 or older who owned a firearm, reported firing a firearm in the past year, used lead-based ammunition (or were unsure of the type), and answered questions about post-shooting hygiene behavior (n=1,565). Participants reported demographic and geographic characteristics (e.g., race, U.S. region, child in household) and firearm behaviors (e.g., shooting frequency, duration, indoor shooting, and storage practices). Outcomes were self-reported post-shooting hygiene behaviors (e.g., showering, changing clothes or shoes, isolating gear before entering the home), examined individually and as a summed continuous index using quasi-Poisson regression. Weighted percentages and rate ratios were estimated.
RESULTS: Among U.S. firearm owners who shot in the past year (75% male, 57% aged 31-59 years), 97% reported using lead-based ammunition or were unsure of the type. Most reported shooting monthly or less (94%) but for ≥30 minutes (91%); 32% primarily shot indoors. Overall, 46% (95% CI=43%, 49%) engaged in no post-shooting hygiene behaviors, and 30% (95% CI=27%, 33%) engaged in only 1. Hygiene behaviors were more common among non-White, younger, urban-dwelling individuals with higher education and income and among those who shot more frequently and for longer durations. Approximately 6 million U.S. children live in households where firearms with lead-based ammunition are shot annually and where caregivers report no post-shooting hygiene behaviors.
CONCLUSIONS: The use of lead-based ammunition is nearly universal among U.S. shooters, while post-shooting hygiene behaviors are uncommon and may represent a substantial pathway for residential lead exposure.