Entomopathogenic nematode recent applications in precision agriculture: Methods, challenges, and future perspectives.

This review examines recent advances in the application technologies of entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) as sustainable biological control agents in agricultural systems. Although synthetic pesticides have long been used for pest management, their adverse effects on non-target organisms and the environment have raised significant concerns, leading to increasing restrictions and a growing demand for alternative strategies. In this context, EPNs have emerged as promising biocontrol agents due to their effectiveness against a wide range of insect pests, safety for humans and the environment, and ability to actively seek and infect hosts. Despite their potential, the practical application of EPNs remains constrained by various biotic and abiotic factors, including environmental conditions, soil characteristics, and limitations associated with conventional application equipment. Factors such as temperature extremes, moisture variability, mechanical stress, and ultraviolet (UV) radiation can significantly reduce nematode survival and efficacy. Therefore, optimising application techniques and understanding pest ecology are critical for maximising their performance under field conditions. This review further explores conventional and emerging EPN delivery systems, highlighting the importance of appropriate mechanisation, formulation, and operational parameters in maintaining nematode viability and enhancing field efficacy. Particular attention is given to recent developments in smart agriculture, including the integration of EPN applications with artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted unmanned ground and aerial vehicles. These technologies offer new opportunities to improve precision, reduce chemical inputs, minimise labour requirements, and enhance the economic feasibility of EPN-based pest management. Overall, this study synthesises current knowledge on EPN application technologies and emphasises their potential role in developing sustainable, efficient, and environmentally responsible pest management strategies in modern agriculture.