The Use of Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation Techniques in Subjects with Parkinson's Disease and Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Systematic Review.

Background/

Objectives

Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is common in Parkinson's disease (PD) and significantly impacts quality of life. Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) techniques have emerged as potential therapeutic interventions. This systematic review analyzes the current evidence regarding the efficacy of Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and transcranial electrical stimulation (tES) on cognitive domains in patients with PD-MCI.

Methods

A systematic search was conducted across the PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Medline Ultimate databases up to 20 November 2025. We included studies investigating the effects of NIBS compared to sham stimulation on neuropsychological outcomes in diagnosed PD-MCI patients.

Results

Eight studies involving different stimulation protocols were included. Interventions primarily used TMS or tES targeting the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). Episodic memory and global cognition were the most responsive domains, assessed with specific neuropsychological scales. Findings for executive functions and attention were heterogeneous, while visuospatial abilities generally showed limited immediate response.

Conclusions

NIBS represents a promising but low-certainty-evidence adjunctive therapy for PD-MCI, with improvements found in memory and global cognition. Future research should prioritize larger sample sizes, combined interventions (NIBS plus cognitive rehabilitation), and extended follow-ups to evaluate long-term neuroplasticity.