Recent advances and emerging mechanisms in graphene-based materials for cartilage tissue engineering.

Graphene-based materials offer tunable mechanical, electrical, and biochemical properties that address longstanding challenges in cartilage tissue engineering. This review synthesizes recent advances in graphene derivatives, scaffold fabrication strategies, and emerging mechanisms governing cell-graphene interactions. We evaluate how graphene enhances mechanical reinforcement, bioactivity, and matrix production across hydrogels, polymer composites, and ECM-derived scaffolds. Key opportunities and translational pathways are identified to guide the development of next-generation cartilage regeneration technologies.