Regional prevalence of aflatoxin M1 in milk and milk-based products (2021-2025): Contamination drivers, detection advances, and mitigation strategies.

Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), a hydroxylated metabolite of aflatoxin B1, is a heat-stable mycotoxin commonly detected in milk and dairy products, posing a significant food safety concern. This review synthesizes data from 98 studies across 53 countries (2021-2025) to evaluate the global occurrence of AFM1 in milk, cheese, and yogurt relative to regulatory limits. Contamination patterns show marked regional variability, with higher exceedances in South Asia and Africa than in Europe and East Asia. Key drivers include contaminated feed, climatic conditions, and seasonal variability. From a food chemistry perspective, AFM1 exhibits strong casein-binding affinity and thermal stability, enabling persistence during processing and concentration in cheese. Recent advances in detection (immunoassays, chromatography, biosensors) and mitigation strategies, including lactic acid bacteria and non-thermal processing, are critically discussed. The review highlights the need for integrated monitoring and improved control strategies to reduce AFM1 exposure.