Ursolic acid in cancer therapy: a review of signaling pathways and apoptotic mechanisms.

Ursolic acid (UA), a natural pentacyclic triterpenoid present in numerous fruits, vegetables, and medicinal herbs, possesses antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory & anticancer properties due to its multi-targeted mechanisms of action. This review primarily focuses on the antitumor potential of UA, highlighting its modulation of key cellular signalling pathways and apoptotic mechanisms. UA exerts its anticancer effects by targeting major oncogenic pathways, including PI3K/AKT/mTOR, MAPK, NF-κB, and JAK/STAT, thereby inhibiting cancer tumor growth, survival, and metastasis. Additionally, it also induces apoptosis via both mitochondrial (intrinsic) and extrinsic death receptor-mediated (extrinsic) pathways, contributing to enhanced mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress within cancer cells. UA disrupts cancer stem cell properties and counteracts drug resistance. To overcome the limitations posed by its poor solubility and low bioavailability, various nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems have been developed to enhance its therapeutic potential. Despite significant progress in preclinical studies, the precise molecular mechanisms and optimal therapeutic doses of UA remain to be fully elucidated to advance its translation into clinical cancer therapy. This review highlights current findings and provides future directions for the development of UA as a complementary or standalone anticancer agent.