Emerging roles of plant-derived extracellular vesicles in the management of dental diseases.

Dental diseases, including dental caries, pulpitis, and periodontitis, can cause pain and tooth loss, compromising mastication, speech, aesthetics, and quality of life. These diseases have also been associated with systemic disorders, including Alzheimer's disease. Conventional interventions, such as restorative procedures, root canal treatment, and periodontal scaling, have inherent limitations, underscoring the clinical need for novel therapeutic strategies. Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) have recently attracted considerable attention owing to their wide availability, cost-effectiveness, favourable biosafety profile, and capacity to mediate cross-kingdom communication. PDEVs exert diverse biological effects, including antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and tissue-regenerative activities. For example, ginger-derived PDEVs suppress the growth and virulence of Porphyromonas gingivalis through their lipid and miRNA cargoes, thereby alleviating periodontitis in mice. Given that effective dental therapy requires antimicrobial action, anti-inflammatory effects, immunomodulation, and tissue regeneration, PDEVs are promising therapeutic modalities. This review summarises the isolation, characterisation, composition, and biological functions of PDEVs, and discusses their potential applications in the management of dental diseases.