Nanoparticles in angiogenesis and vascular development: From therapeutics to theragnostic.

Angiogenesis and vascular development are fundamental biological processes that regulate tissue growth, regeneration, and repair, whereas their dysregulation is implicated in the pathogenesis of various conditions, including cancer, ischemic disorders, chronic wounds, and other vascular diseases. Although conventional angiogenic therapies have shown therapeutic potential, their clinical efficacy is often constrained by poor tissue specificity, rapid degradation, and suboptimal control over drug release. This review examines recent advances in nanoparticle-based strategies for modulating angiogenesis, with particular emphasis on the molecular mechanisms governing vascular remodeling and the translational potential of emerging nanomedicines. Polymeric, lipid-based, metallic, and hybrid nanoparticles are compared with respect to their physicochemical characteristics, biological interactions, therapeutic applications, and current limitations in both pro-angiogenic and anti-angiogenic settings. We further discuss how these nanoplatforms interact with major angiogenic signaling pathways, including VEGF, FGF, HIF-1α, Notch, and Ang/Tie2, and highlight their expanding role as theranostic systems capable of integrating targeted therapy with noninvasive imaging of vascular responses. Current evidence suggests that rationally engineered nanoparticles can improve drug stability, spatiotemporal control of therapeutic delivery, and disease-specific targeting while providing new opportunities for precision vascular medicine. Nevertheless, challenges related to safety, immunogenicity, manufacturing scalability, regulatory approval, and reproducible production remain significant barriers to clinical translation. This review brings together findings from vascular biology, nanomedicine, and regenerative medicine to provide a broader perspective on nanoparticle-mediated angiogenesis.